Ethics and agricultural biotechnology

By Dr Rashid Anwar

With the advancement of technology, powerful tools have been developed to produce crops benefiting farmers and consumers. Biotechnology, while merely a scientific tool, has instigated worldwide debate and confusion, resulting in mixed feedbacks from people of all facets of life.

The worldwide debate on the pros and cons of biotechnology has been likened to a battleground and prominent place for virtually every ethical concern. It has stirred conflicting opinions and has polarised sectors not only among stakeholders but even between countries.

Agriculture has long been a topic of philosophical, religious and political reflection. However, it was only in the late 20th century that systematic thinking about the values and norms associated with the food system, such as farming, food processing, distribution, trade and consumption, began to be discussed in the context of agricultural ethics. In addition, by placing biotechnology in the light of globalisation, societal debate has moved towards a discussion of ethical and social impacts.

In 2000, the Council of European Parliamentary Assembly recommended that it was increasingly important to include ethical considerations centred on humankind, society and the environment in deliberations regarding developments and applications in biotechnology and life sciences. A year later, the United

Kingdom’s Royal Society Report asserted that the public debate about genetically modified food must take account of wider issues than science alone.

 Ethical issues

The following are examples of issues more clearly articulated by several renowned scientists and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), of the United Nations during 2001.

God’s creation

Genetic modification is said to involve human intervention in nature’s task. Hence, is considered an unnatural act. It affirms that the technology is “so intrusive to life processes that they amount to a form of disrespect for humanity’s proper relationship to nature, a form of playing with God’s creation”.

Some religions ascribe a particular “essence” to each living organism and hence, connect the concept of gene with the idea of essence. Others believe that biotechnology disrupts natural order and violates the limits of what humans are ethically permitted to do. Alternatively, there is the view that science and progress are good things and God has given facilities to help mankind support life and better manage the environment.

Religion - agricultural biotechnology

The religious sector, notably the Roman Catholic Church and the Muslim faith, have voiced their views on biotechnology. To the Muslims, biotechnology is discussed from a religious perspective when it entails a discourse on food. The general criterion for any food to be consumed by Muslims is known as “halal and tayyiban” which means permissible by the shariah perspective (halal) and of good quality (tayyib)”. In the case of GM food, as long as it meets these two criteria, only then it can be consumed by the Muslims.

In October 2004, the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace released the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church that is an “overview of the fundamental framework of the doctrinal corpus of Catholic social teaching”. Biotechnology is mentioned as having powerful social, economic, and political impact but that it should be used with prudence, objectivity, and responsibility.

Welfare and sustainability

The main issue is whether the technology considers the pursuit of the food together with the concept of sustainability? While a technology can provide more food it should not be to the detriment of the environment or to human health or disrupt traditional behavioural systems. In like manner, it is an ethical issue if food that can provide more and better nutrition is not made available to those who need it most. Hence, not to use a technology that has potential to improve the quality of lives of people is also a moral issue. As an environmental issue, questions raised have to do with concerns regarding environmental protection, sustainable use of biodiversity, economic growth and social equity.

A concern particularly in developing countries is the concept of just distribution of benefits and burdens. Questions have to do with whether the products produced by the technology will be able to provide for those who really need it and whether it will generate wealth for society as a whole.

Ethical concerns

FAO (2001) recognises that there is no single set of ethical principles sufficient for building a more equitable and ethical food and agricultural system. However, it recommends the following actions that individuals, states, corporations and voluntary organisations in the international community can take:

(a) Creating the mechanisms to balance interests and resolve conflicts.

(b) Supporting and encouraging broad stakeholder participation in policies, programs, and projects.

(c) Encouraging individuals, communities and nations to engage in dialogue, and ultimately, to do what is ethical.

(d) Developing and disseminating widely the information and analyses necessary to make wise and ethical decisions.

(e) Ensuring that decision-making procedures in international food and agriculture policy are well understood and transparent.

(f) Fostering the use of science and technology in support of a more just and equitable food and agriculture system.

(g) Ensuring that programs, policies, standards and decisions always take ethical considerations into account so as to lead to enhanced well being, environmental protection and improved health.

(h) Developing codes of ethical conduct where they do not currently exist.

(i) Periodically reviewing ethical commitments and determining whether or not they are appropriate, in the light of new knowledge and changes in circumstances.

Agricultural ethics

In general, ‘ethics’ is defined as the ideals, values or standards the people use to determine whether their actions are good or bad. It is what society uses to judge whether an issue or view is acceptable and justifiable and determines responsibility and justice. It answers the question “Is an action right or wrong?”

On one hand, ethics is a set of universal norms that are documented through legal or professional codes of practice, religious texts, literature and philosophy. On the other, ethics are values defined by a person or groups that are personal, introspective, and hence, difficult to mange for public discussion. Given the range of cultural diversity, it is expected that people would react in different ways to certain issues and concerns.

Ethics in agricultural biotechnology therefore encompass value judgments that cover the production, processing, and distribution of food and agricultural products. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations asserts that ethical values determine its reason for being – these being the values for food, enhanced well-being, human health, natural resources, and nature (FAO, 2001).

Conclusion

Despite the diversity of ethical issues in agricultural biotechnology, there is a need to understand beliefs and doctrines as this allows coexistence within and across societies, and prevents social conflict. A technology’s acceptance is based not only on technological soundness but also on how it is perceived to be socially, politically, and economically feasible from the viewpoint of desperate groups. An understanding of ethics helps determine what information is needed by society and how to deal with different opinions. A process of negotiation based on trust is essential to enable stakeholders to participate in debates and decision making in this regard.